AUTUMN PLUMAGE
N
Ww. GREVE, FERL
LITHO.
R.H. PORTER
PUBLISHED BY
PTR 3, | FEBRUARY, 1909.
‘
BRITISH WARBLERS
oe renolOinw. With PROBLEMS
OF
Teor Livyys
BY
|
H© ELIOT HOWARD, F.Z.S8., M.B.O.U.
ILLUSTRATED BY HENRIK GRONVOLD
Lonoon ae
Re El RORWEHR,:.
7, PRINCES STREET, CAVENDISH SQUARE, W.
Price 21s. net.
SMITHSONIAN,
JAN 23 1986
LIBRARIES
WITHSON/4
AUG 2y 1974
LIBRARIES
ee WL
27
PLIINTY
07
pt. 2
CONTENTS.
TEXT. .
Blackcap ... es = oo a cob) em open Ob LO
Pallas’s Willow- Warbler pg waa et
Radde’s Bush-Warbler Hera)
PLATES.
Chiff-chaff, autumn plumage (coloured).
Blackeap, CRS ”
Male Blackcaps and Chiff-chaff (Photogravure).
Blackeap ade .
Reta Reeds a
55 Mua, eee tae Fi
Male Blackceaps ,, »
Blackecap es
an aes ate, its si
. Ske? (eA STs SI tig et .
Pallas’s Willow-Warbler (coloured).
Radde’s Bush- Warbler, immature and adult (coloured).
Female Chiff-chaff (Photogravure).
TWO MAPS.
Showing approximate Geographical Distribution of Blackcap and
Garden- Warbler during Summer and Winter.
PUBLISHED BY RH PORTER
pan) ee
BLA CKCAP.
es
Sylvia atricapilla,~ Wf yer, British Birds, folio Ed., vol. i (coloured plate
figuring * ‘adult male, female, and egg) (1835. 43] ; Macgillwray,
» British’ Birds; vol. ii, pp. 339-344, fig. 170 (woodcut of head), 1839 ;
_Yarrell, British Birds, 4th Ed., vol. : edited by Newton, pp. 418-422
(woodcut), 1873; Dresser, Birds of Hurope, vol. ii, pp. 421-427,
pl. 66 (coloured figures of adult male and female), 1875; Seebohm,
British Birds, vol. i, pp. 394-399, pl. 10, fig. 8 (egg), 1883; Lilford,
Coloured Figwres, vol. ii, p. 56, pl. 28 (coloured figures of adult
male and female), 1885; Saunders, Manual of British Birds, 2nd
Ed., pp. 47-48 (woodcut), 1897.
Curruca ie anigappillal Hewitson, British Oology, 1st Ed., vol. i, pl. 42, fig.
- (egg) [1836] ; Gould, Birds of Great: Britain, vol. il, 2 pp, pl. 60
(coloured figures of adult male and Ena 1865 ; Booth, Lough
Notes, vol. ii, pp. 49-50, 1884. "=" =
Curruca atracapilla, Hewitson, Eggs of De | aes and Hd., vol. i,
pp. 93-94, pl. 27, figs. 1 and 2 (eggs), 1846.
Sylvia atracapilla, ‘Hewutson, Eggs of British Birds, 8rd Ed., vol. i,
pp. 126-27, pl. 34, figs. 1 and 2 (eggs), 1856. :
Croatian, raha ee grin musa; Danish, Munk ; Dutch, Gurion. French,
Fauvette @ téte noire; German, Ménch- Grasmiicke ; Hungarian, Bardtka
poszedta; Italian, Ciphers Norwegian, Munk, Sorthaette; Swedish,
Svarthufvade Sdngaren; Russian, Tschernogolowka ; Polish,. Pokrywka
ezarnogtowka.
DESCRIPTION. OF THE PLUMAGE.
Adult Male in. Spring. +—The crown is pure black with a
shght bluish gloss: The hind neck and the sides of the head
are pure ashy grey, and the mantlé and rump the same colour,
but distinctly washed with olive.’ The upper parts of the
wings and tail are Olive grey; the large feathers being edged
with a lighter tint--of ‘the sanie- colour, and the shaft of both
wing and tail- feathers reddish brown. ‘The throat, chest; and
flanks are ashy grey, but the colour on ‘the flanks is rather
lighter and washed with olive’ buff. The abdomen is white,
and the under tail-coverts whitish grey with ashy grey
1
BRITISH WARBLERS
centres. The under part of the tail is ashy grey, the shafts
of the feathers being white. The under side of the wing and
the larger under wing-coverts are grey, edged with whitish
buff, the axillaries olive buff, and the smaller under wing-
coverts light whitish olive with dusky centres. The iris is
dark brown, the small feathers on the upper eyelid being
blackish, while those on the lower are white, and the lores
ashy grey. ‘The bill is bluish lead colour, and the tip of
both mandibles horn black. ‘The palate is light lavender grey,
and the inside of the chin and the tongue fleshy buff. ‘The
legs are of a light lead colour, the soles having a wash of olive,
and the claws dark grey.
Adult Male in Autumn.—The colouring does not differ
very much from that of the spring, excepting that the back
and rump are more distinctly washed with olive. The chin is
whitish olive, and the abdomen has a distinct wash of light
yellowish buff.
Adult Female in Spring.—The crown is of a dull umber
hue, and the sides of the head and the nape ashy grey. The
under parts are ashy white, washed, but not very conspicu-
ously, on the crop and upper sides of the breast with olive
ochre. This same colour extends down the flanks, becoming
slightly darker and richer towards the crissum, whereas the
centre of the abdomen is left ashy white. The under tail-
coverts are ashy white near the body, becoming olive ash
towards the tip. The upper part of the tail is ashy grey
washed with olive, and the under part ashy grey. The under
wing-coverts are whitish ash washed with light olive ochre,
and the under side of the flight-feathers grey, edged with
whitish ash. The feathers on the upper eyelid are the same
colour as those on the crown, those on the lower whitish grey.
Upper mandible is dark horn colour, lower lead blue slightly
darker at the tip.
Nestling.—The crown is brownish buff. The upper parts
are olive erey, flight-feathers slate colour, wing-coverts and
innermost secondaries edged with olive grey. The throat is
2
BLACKCAP
buff, and the crop, sides of the breast, and flanks rather a light
olive buff. Under parts and under tail-coverts are buff, and
the crissum whitish. The feet are flesh colour with a tinge of
lavender.
The gape is reddish flesh with a tinge of ochre, and the
tongue the same colour with two dusky spots near the root.
The bill is dark horn colour, and the corner of the mouth
yellow. Iris bluish black, lower eyelid ochre, and the lores
slaty grey. |
On leaving the ege the bird is naked, with eyelids com-
pletely sealed. The skin is flesh colour, but more lilac on the
throat, back of the head, and spine, and orange red where the
lunes are visible. The corner of the mouth is whitish flesh
and the gape and tongue flesh colour, the latter having two
light ash grey spots and a central red line. The feet are of a
transparent flesh colour.
Immature.—The plumage differs only slightly from that of
the adults, except that the young male has the cap dark rusty
umber brown. The colour of this cap changes during the
winter, and the bird returns in the spring as a rule with it
black, but in some cases the change has not then reached
completion, the tips of the feathers being still brown.
A dark variety in which the head, throat, and upper
breast are blackish, and the remainder of the plumage much
darker, has been met with in the countries bordering the
Mediterranean, Madeira, Cape Verd and Canary Islands.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.
Through the whole of England and Wales it is generally
distributed, but rather local in parts of Cornwall, Lincolnshire,
Cumberland, Anglesey, and Caernarvonshite.
As a breeding species it becomes scarce in Scotland above
the Firths of Clyde and Forth, being very rare in the northern
parts. There are records of its occurrence from the Outer
3
BRITISH WARBLERS
Hebrides and the Island of Jura. On the Hast Coast it breeds
as far north as Inverness, and on migration is found recularly
in the Orkney, Shetland and Faroe Islands. To Ireland it is
a local summer visitor, rare in many counties, but breeding
regularly in Dublin, Wicklow, Kildare, and Queen’s County.
Its occurrence in the Channel Islands except Guernsey
seems doubtful.
In the Cape Verd Islands, Canary Islands, Madeira,
Azores, and the countries bordering the Western Mediter-
ranean it is a common resident species. |
Over Central Europe and Southern Scandinavia it is
generally distributed and common as a breeding species, and
we find it occurring regularly, though in gradually lessening
numbers, as far as 66° N. Lat. Records have been obtained
as far north as the Lyngen Fiord. Proceeding eastward from
here we find it somewhat scarce in Finland, occurring princi-
pally in the vicinity of Helsingfors, Uskela, Kuopio, and as
far north as Uleaborg. In the Province of Olonetz it has
been recorded near Petrozavodsk, Witegra and Kargopol, and
on the River Dwina as far as 62° N. Lat. It also visits the
Province of Viatka, and appears to be much rarer on the
eastern slopes of the Ural Mountains than on the western.
In Southern Europe it is found throughout Italy and the
Islands of Corsica and Sardinia, but in Greece it is rare as
a breeding species, though common during the winter, and
occurs on migration in Crete. In Montenegro and Turkey
the bird is not plentiful as a breeding species, but passes
through the latter country on migration. To the South-
western Provinces of Russia and throughout the Caucasus
it is a frequent visitor, but it is doubtful whether it breeds
in the Crimea, although it occurs on migration. In Trans-
Caucasia it is by no means uncommon, being found from
Abkhasia in the west to Lenkoran in the east, -and on
migration it visits the Caspian Steppes. In parts of Asia
Minor and Persia, as far east as Teheran, it appears to be
a resident species.
BLACKCAP
During the winter it visits the Soudan, Abyssinia,
Somaliland and British East Africa as far south as the
River Athi. |
Solitary individuals remain in the south of England and
Ireland during the winter months.
LIFE-HISTORY.
There are many facts in the life of this bird which are
good examples of the contradictory nature of the evidence a
naturalist has often to face, and this makes the character of
the species an unusually interesting one. The different in-
dividuals are full of energy, very restless, and, in addition,
not only possess a number of characteristics common to many
of the lower animals, but possess them in a ereater degree
than other closely allied species. Whatever part, therefore,
they have to play, whether quarrelling, singing, making pre-
parations for and tending their young, or exhibiting apparent
jealousy towards their neighbours, they do it to the best of -
their ability. This is probably why they are so much in
evidence in the woods and groves they love to inhabit, and
this is also the cause of the endless peculiarities of character,
of which each member of the species partakes alike.
Their arrival, which does not seem to depend upon any
climatic conditions here, but is no doubt influenced by the
prevailing winds outside the British Islands, is very erratic.
The earliest date I have noticed is March 30th, but on the
other hand, it has been as late as April 23rd before the first
one reached this district.
The first males are solitary individuals scattered through
the country; they might be called forerunners, since there
is often a pause of a few days before the general body of the
migrants follow.
_ Until recently I believed that these males were always
mature, with both plumage and song fully developed, but I
5
BRITISH WARBLERS
now find that, in some years, the immature birds are the first
to arrive. There is little difficulty in deciding this, since,
compared to the fully developed males, these immature
individuals are inferior in beauty; their plumage is dull,
the feathers appearing to lack sufficient colouring matter,
and in some cases the black feathers on the head are still
tipped with brown. The difference also in the quality of the
feathers is very striking, which, while lacking the finish and
gloss of the older birds, resemble more nearly the undeveloped
plumage of the young on leaving the nest. The inferiority
with regard to the song is even more marked, the immature
birds not possessing so great a variation nor the same rich-
ness of tone. But some recognised definition of the term
“mature” is really needed. We cannot judge by any one
particular phase of plumage, since there is little doubt that
the colour increases in intensity and the growth of the
feathers continues for some years, possibly throughout the
life of many species. It is probable that it will ultimately
be found that the quality of the plumage and the richness
of the song develop correspondingly. There is only one
logical definition of the term, 7.e., the age at which an
individual attains to the power of sexual reproduction.
Wooded banks and dingles, coppices, gardens with plenty
of evergreens, and woods in which the timber is annually
felled, and in which, consequently, there is an abundance of
undergrowth, are the favourite resorts of these birds, provided
that there are sufficient trees overgrown with the common
climbing ivy (Hedera helix) close at hand, for they live on
the fruit of this ivy until there is sufficient insect food to
maintain them; which is probably for two or three weeks
after their arrival, but the time varies according to the con-
dition of the season and the development of insect life.
There are few more spring-like sounds than the song of
the male; it has, in fact, a peculiar cheerfulness, which alone
seems to transform winter into spring. Arriving during the
night, he commences to sing soon after dawn, but the energy
6
i
It is proposed to issue a special Photogravure of this plate,
with the birds’ natural size. Each copy wili be printed on India
paper and signed by the artist. Size of the engraved surface of
plate is II xX 14 inches.
Price to Subscribers hs ves 15/- net.
Price to Non-Subscribers ... RP 21/- net.
The original drawing can be seen at the Publishers, to whom
orders should be sent.
PUBLISHED BY R.H: PORTER
=
,MALI
Ba ACV ECAIPS
WHILE FIGHTING FOR THEIR BREEDING TERRITORY
ATTACKED BY A MALE CHIFF-CHAFF
SWAN ELECTRIC ENGRAVING (?
BLACKOAP
imparted to his song depends to some extent, at this early stage
_ of the season, on the weather. Cold winds do not suit him; on
the other hand, sunshine is not a necessity, but warmth, no
matter whether accompanied by dampness or actual rain, he
must have, if he is to enjoy life to the full. On cold mornings
in April he often establishes himself on the top of some high
tree, and here for a while remains in meditation and song,
gathering what comfort he can from the warmth of the feeble
rays of the rising sun, that glisten on his breast as he preens
his feathers, while below everything is white with frost.
Presently, leaving his perch, he flies direct to the nearest ivy
berries, and having rapidly swallowed six or more, rests while
digestion takes place, then again goes in search of another
quantity. While thus resting he either warbles quietly to
himself for some minutes together, finally bursting out into
sone, preens his feathers, or sits with all his feathers relaxed.
If cold winds prevail he makes his way during the daytime
to the more sheltered spots, where he can enjoy what sun-
shine there may be. J have sometimes found the males, early
in April, in a quiet corner on the outskirts of small woods
gathered together on the low bushes, there sunning them-
selves, with their feathers relaxed and fluffed out in their
peculiar manner.
Each male on his arrival regards a space of ground within
certain limits as his peculiar breeding territory, and if two,
arriving during the same night, happen to have settled in the
same locality, a severe fight for possession ensues. During these
battles their whole attitude is expressive of intense rage, their
feathers are drawn closely to their bodies, but their black
head-feathers are raised ; they fly at one another, and, meeting
in the air, peck furiously at each other as they flutter round
and round. Such fights are evidently a great exertion, for,
when resting after each trial of strength they sit with bills
open, panting for breath, before they again dart off, flying
very rapidly in and out of the trees.
The note principally uttered is the one used by the male
il
BRITISH WARBLERS
under stress of intense excitement, a low, lengthened kind
of whining, very plaintive, resembling in some measure the
word pheu, but they sometimes make a curious gureling
sound, which seems to be produced low down in the throat.
But it is not only when two males happen to have settled in
the same locality on the same morning that these fights take
place. I remember one case in which a male, having arrived
some days previously, was even engaged in courting a female,
when another male, undoubtedly a new arrival, appeared on
the scene, and a severe strugele ensued. ‘The new-comer was
immediately attacked and flew away pursued by the owner.
The flight of both males was slow, and in the course of it
they circled in and out of the trees, so that they kept return-
ing to where I was standing, and I was thus enabled to
witness a great part of the contest. The intruder would
settle, and the owner would immediately do the same quite
close to him, never for a moment leaving him alone, but
compelling him, by incessant attacks, to move from place to
place. In this way the fight actively proceeded for a con-
siderable time, the intruder sometimes retaliating, which
resulted in a fierce struggle, both birds falling to the ground
locked together, where they would remain fluttermg and
rolling about. During the pauses in the contest both males
sang, but the intruder’s song was neither so loud nor so
vigorous as his opponent’s. The female did not follow the
combatants, and the owner, who had previously been courting
her, seemed to neglect her during the strugele. As far as I
was enabled to judge, she remained an uninterested spectator
at the opposite end of the territory, though when the fight
was over I saw her again close to the owner. The males,
on the first morning after their arrival, are not always antagon-
istic, for I have seen two, which had only just arrived,
evidently on the most friendly terms, following one another
and feeding within a few feet on the same branches, one of
them, apparently the leader, frequently singing, the other
following in his wake.
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BLACKCAP
Until a female arrives in his territory, the male spends
much of his time in song. He makes use of a particular
branch upon a particular tree, perched upon which he, morn-
ing after morning, pours out his song or preens his feathers.
This branch may be called the headquarters of his territory,
and I have noticed that it is sometimes a conspicuous one,
projecting from the other branches, from which a clear view
of the surrounding neighbourhood can be obtained. In
order to see how invariably he makes use of it, it is only
necessary to remain in hiding a short time somewhere close
at hand. He leaves it when searching for food, or attacking
another male, but, after finishing whatever active task he
may be engaged in, he will return without much delay. After
a female has arrived and mating has taken place, he seems to
attach less importance to the branch, transferring his head-
quarters to the nest.
I once saw a male, almost the first I had noticed that
year, flying excitedly from tree to tree carrying a piece of dead
cow-parsnip (Heraclewm sphondyliwm) in his bill. I should
not attach much importance to such an isolated action, had
T not seen a similar occurrence in the case of another species,
the Whitethroat; which makes me inclined to think that our
knowledge is defective, and that such actions may not be of
uncommon occurrence. There is little doubt that it is in some
way connected with the well-known and unexplained habit,
found amongst the males of many species, while courting, of
picking up and carrying some piece of dead vegetation in
their bills; but in these two specific instances no females had
arrived. Such actions may be an outward sign only of the
one absorbing feature of the bird’s existence at this time,
the redewntio amoris, a feature in which the construction of
the nest forms an important part, but it is also possible that
there may be a deeper meaning attached to them, and that
they may have preceded, in the course of development, the
construction of the nest.
The females commence to arrive about the middle of April,
9
BRITISH WARBLERS
generally some days after the first male; but the migration of
the sexes overlaps, males continuing to arrive with the females.
There is as great a variation in the plumage of the females as
in that of the males, the immature birds being easily distin-
guished by their dull appearance and by a conspicuous absence
of that intensity of colouring and development of feather
which are such prominent beauties of a more fully mature
bird.
The duration of the courtship depends, I believe,
solely upon the female ; for it sometimes happens that
on her arrival she is not in a condition to breed, and
in such a case she passes unnoticed amongst the unpaired
males, her presence having no exciting influence upon
them; she is thus allowed to seek her food and pursue
her way unmolested. But this is by no means a usual
occurrence; her presence is generally a signal for an
intense outburst of sexual passion. In no other way, it
seems to me, can we account for the variation in the duration
of the courtship. In one year, for instance, in which the
males were very late, a solitary female arrived first. The
first male that arrived paired immediately with this female ;
there was little excitement or courtship, the nest was rapidly
built, and the young were hatched within a month from the
date of his arrival. But, on the other hand, it is by no means
uncommon to see pairs actively engaged in their courtship
for many mornings in succession.
By the term courtship I refer always to the period between
the time in which a female settles *in the territory of a
given male and the time when the first egg is laid.
This period is always one of excitement to the male ;
an excitement which, varying in intensity with the ner-
vous organisation of the species, vanishes temporarily
the moment the sexual passion is relieved, but re-
appears, although in a lesser degree, before each act of
coition.
There seems indeed to be some connection between the -
10
7
PUBDISHED BY R.H PORTER
IMBAIDIS, | ISA Ad OsVOe sae?
ATTITUDE ASSUMED WHEN ANGRY WITH ANOTHER MALE
AND ALSO SOMETIMES WHEN IN PRESENCE OF THE FEMALE DURING THE
PERIOD OF SEXUAL ACTIVITY
SWAN ELECTRIC ENGRAVING G9
BLACKCAP
intensity of this excitement and the length of time that the
male has been previously absent from the female; for I have
noticed that, amongst the majority of the migratory species, the
excitement, as evinced by their actions, is much greater than
the average excitement displayed at the corresponding period
amongst resident species. In this respect it is almost possible
to trace a distinct gradation, commencing with those species
that pair for life—in which case the excitement is limited to
the time immediately preceding coition-—up to the migrants,
which represent the highest type of such excitement. ‘That
there should be such gradations can be readily understood if
it is accepted that all the special activities of this period are
directly caused by the development and stimulation of the
sexual organs; for resident species probably pair before such
development has taken place, consequently the natural passion
can be immediately relieved; this is also the case with species
that pair for life, but amongst the migrants the conditions
are very different, for the males, as a rule, arrive before the
females, and being sexually developed, are excitable and
possessed of great energy, which reaches its height only on
the appearance of the female. A study of the males from this
point of view is interesting and, to myself, very convincing.
I am, therefore, inclined to doubt whether the term ‘“ court-
ship” is really admissible, whether, in fact, an altogether
erroneous impression is not thereby conveyed. And, as
bearing on this question, it is a fact of no small importance
that the males generally pair with the females that first settle
in their territory, before whom they have behaved in the
manner referred to, and ultimately rear with them offspring
in that territory.
It is difficult to describe the excitement of the male when
a female is present; the variations in the sounds he produces
and the antics he performs are so numerous. The intensity
of his emotions soon discloses the fact that a female has
arrived, and it is then no difficult matter to approach him
closely, the more so as he is never very far distant from
11
BRITISH WARBLERS
the female; and she, at this time, seems to be decidedly
happier low down amongst the bushes than higher up amongst
the trees. She travels unconcernedly from bush to bush in
search of food, and he follows her, but, owing to his frequent
fits of excitement, often lags some little distance behind.
This is especially the case when she happens to pass through
some dense thicket, such as honeysuckle (Lonicera Peri-
clymenum), to which he has followed her, and in the middle
of which he is entirely concealed. In such a place he will
pause and burst forth into a curious jumble of musical and
unmusical strains. At first you hear a number of highly
pitched squealing sounds, then a pause, then a series of
perfect imitations of different species, such as the Nightingale,
Garden -Warbler, Whitethroat, Marsh-Warbler, Starling,
Linnet, or even the “chuckle” of the Blackbird; then again
a pause, or perhaps without a break his true song, at first
uttered in a whisper that is scarcely audible, then rising and
swelling to a pitch of almost fury, and finally finishing with
his wonderful liquid and beautiful notes. Walking round the
bush in which he was thus singing, I have tried to get a
glimpse of him, generally without success, but occasionally
I have had an opportunity of watching him closely; the dis-
tended throat and quivering body bear evidence to the
tremendous effort necessary to produce some of the sounds.
Some of the quiet whispering notes are produced with the
bill scarcely open at all, but they nevertheless seem to require
considerable power. After singing thus for some minutes he
again bethinks himself of the female, who, in the meantime,
having passed on regardless of his performance, is possibly some
distance away. He therefore goes in search of her, and if
unable to find her, calls to her, a summons which promptly
elicits a note in reply; or the reverse may be the case, when
she, missing his companionship, calls to him, opening her bill
very wide and producing a harsh grating sound. As a rule
he knows in which direction she has gone, and bursting out
of his hiding place and flying towards her with the slow
12
PUBLISHED
BY B.H. PORTER
IVA iS ASC ae CAs
ATTITUDE ASSUMED DURING THE
PERIOD OF SEXUAL ACTIVITY
SWAN ELECTRIC ENGRAVING C9.
BLACKCAP
but very pretty flapping flight, similar to that used by other
Species under stress of great excitement, he settles near her,
and gives expression to his feelings by the long low plaintive
whistle to which I have already referred when speaking of
the contests for the breeding territory. If she happens to be
calling him, he may possibly dart out at her, and they will
then both twist and tumble about in the air. In some cases
the male will keep returning to his particular branch at the
top of some tree, from which, when the female is present, he
darts headlong into the bushes, gradually working his way
back again to the favourite branch. During the courtship
there always seems to me a distinct unwillingness on the part
of the male to go beyond the boundaries of his territory; the
female often does so, and this, I believe, is a cause of their being
apart from one another for short periods of time, and it may
be that during these periods the male returns to his favourite
branch, behaving as he usually does on his first arrival, but
no doubt keeping a close watch on her movements. Some-
times a male is still more restless, and between the outbursts
of excitement shown when in the vicinity of the female, will
fly backwards and forwards over a considerable area, never
many minutes in the same spot, but moving rapidly from tree
to tree and bush to bush, occasionally bursting into song.
As showing the degree of excitement of the male at this
period, I have seen one, prior to the arrival of a female,
executing a dance which consisted of a series of jumps up
and down on a branch, giving the bird a very comical appear-
ance. Such a dance is not an uncommon thing in bird-life,
but generally—in the case of the Song-Thrush for instance—
it consists of a series of bounds from side to side.
Where two unpaired males have territories adjoining, and
a single female arrives in the territory of one of them, the
other one sometimes leaves his own territory and follows her
together with the rightful owner, both of them behaving in
the usual manner. When thus engaged I have seen two
males within a few feet of one another, almost, if not quite,
13
BRITISH WARBLERS
on the ground amongst the brambles, the female being
also close at hand. One of the males would sing quietly,
chiefly imitating other species, and the other one would
fly at him in a playful manner. All three birds would
then leave, both males singing excitedly, the male from the
adjoining territory retiring towards his own area, and the
other male following the female in the undergrowth. After
a short time the intruder would return and commence to
sing, but would not interfere. Sometimes, when in the
actual presence of the female, one of the males would sing
while the other would fly at her with feathers ruffled,
those on the head erected, and tail outspread, but on these
occasions I could not be certain which male was the rightful
owner. What, however, principally interested me when
watching this episode, was to notice the manner in which
the male who owned the territory, and who ultimately paired
with the female, behaved towards the intruder. As I have
already mentioned, whenever there is any question of owner-
ship of breeding territory, even if a female is present, a severe
struggle ensues, but in this instance this question was clearly
absent, and there being nothing to fear from his neighbour,
he treated him, as might be expected, with apparent indiffer-
ence; this, indeed, was most conspicuous. Exactly a week
after this incident, a female having arrived in the territory of
the remaining unpaired male, pairing at once took place
between them.
Where the males are numerous, two or even three pursue
one another when a female is present, but I have only
seen this taking place in the case of the later courtships,
and it is very probable that some of the males that take
part in such a pursuit may be already paired. Yet it is
a pretty sight to watch them, since the fight is not always
a rapid one—as is the case when they are sometimes
fighting with one another—but very slow. They extend their
wings fully and beat the air in the same way as when follow-
ing the female. The flight is indeed so slow that their
14
6 NTA! ore: NV UALuUOd HE AG AHHSITANG
Sine Cas a ef ALIAILOV TWNXES 40 GOTNda HHL PNTANG =f
LHOITA SONIiddVId MOTS FHL AO GN FHL IV BUAHLONV ANO ONIOVE
SdVOMOVIdG FIV
BLACKCAP
movements can be followed very casily; they twist 1 and
out of the bushes, generally in a circle, and it is only neces-
sary to remain motionless in the same position in order to
see the whole performance. In the middle of this flapping
flight two of them will settle on branches opposite and close
to one another, and raising the feathers on their heads and
bodies, will open wide their bills, and utter a sound which is
more like a grunting or croaking than anything else, and is
quite unlike any of their usual notes.
At other times there are two females and one male.
When this is the case the females pursue and fight with
one another. But as a rule the female is little in evidence
during all these proceedings, pursuing her way quietly in
search of food; in fact, she seems to take no interest at all
in the performances of'the males. For this reason it is often
a difficult matter to find her and follow her movements. She
prefers the low shrubs and bushes to the taller trees, but
occasionally travels amongst the tops of such trees as larch,
in search of food, probably Chironomide, which are plentiful
in these places, or finds her way to the trees which are
covered with the climbing ivy, and remaining some time
amongst the foliage, feeds quietly on the berries. The only
time she really makes her presence known is when she calls
to the male, but this is not very often.
The positions assumed by the male during this short
period are numerous and extravagant, frequently bordering
on the ludicrous. They are an excellent illustration of the
effect produced by sexual or other excitement upon a species
with a highly developed nervous system ; the muscles respon-
sible for the different feather tracts are used indiscriminately,
and the positions resulting therefrom are often devoid of any
beauty of form. It is difficult to believe that any species can
perform a greater variety of antics during such a period. The
antics of such birds as the Great Bustard (Otis tarda), Birds
of Paradise (Paradiseide), Argus Pheasant, &c., are well
known, and are no doubt very wonderful; they attract
15
BRITISH WARBLERS
attention solely owing to the size of the bird and the con-
spicuous colouring of the plumage, but in the case of the
Blackcap, and also of many other of our most common native
species, the conditions are entirely reversed, for they are
small, their plumage is inconspicuous and dull, their per-
formances are more quickly executed, and consequently very
close attention to their habits is necessary, in order, not only
to see, but to realise what is actually taking place. Yet their
antics are no less remarkable. ‘The difference is only one of
degree, not, however, in the performance, but in the plumage.
Imagine the Blackcap possessed of the gorgeous plumes of
many other species, and his exhibition would be a truly
remarkable one. During this time of excitement the feathers
on the head, especially the black cap, are raised, but some-
times alternately raised and lowered, those on the breast
and flanks are fluffed out and the throat is often distended,
but more particularly so when singing. The feathers on the
back are raised disproportionately, giving one the impression
that one or two of the longer ones were being moved inde-
pendently of the others, the wings are drooped or extended:
fully and flapped, the scapulars raised, the tail-feathers quickly
spread out and as quickly contracted, and the tail itself either
raised or lowered at various angles. The tail is often spread
out to such an extent that large spaces appear between the
different feathers, and is sometimes carried at right angles to
the body. When the flapping flight is in progress the wings
are fully extended, and as far as it is possible to tell, the
feathers all over the body are relaxed.
We now come to the part played by the vocal powers in
the courtship. According to the theory of sexual selection,
song has been developed in the males owing to the females
being more sexually excited by, and consequently pairing
with, those whose vocal powers were developed in the highest
degree. The male Blackcap is one of the most beautiful—
and in the opinion of some, the most beautiful—of our
native songsters. His rich and liquid notes will bear com-
16
60 ONTAVUONG OTMLOTIA NVMS
GIVNGT YHHLONV Ad GHHOVOUdIY
SI G@IVW SLI NAHM GHNOSSVY ACN
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MaLe4od HU AG AHHSITand
BLACKOAP
parison with those produced by any other known species;
it is, in fact, difficult to conceive of more beautiful notes
being uttered. This development, which is very remarkable,
must, in the light of this theory, have arisen from the greater
sensitiveness shown on the part of the females for the vocal
powers than for the colours of the males, and I do not think
that anyone will question this. We ought, therefore, to find
that during the courtship the males would utilise their power
of song to the best of their ability, but such is not the case.
As considerable significance is attached to this point, let
me repeat the facts which I have mentioned earlier when
describing the courtship. Until the females arrive the males
usually sing their true song, but occasionally, especially when
excited, imitate other species. Upon the arrival of the
females a change takes place, and excitement ig at its
highest point, with the result that the true song is so
far forgotten that, especially during that part of the court-
ship when the male is close to the female, high-pitched
squealing notes, together with imitations, are almost solely
produced, and often for a considerable time without a pause.
Now let us see how the males behave under the influence
of a different kind of excitement. Remove a young one from
the nest, when old enough to recognise and reply to its
parents, and notice the effect produced. The male approaches
within a few yards of you, twists and turns on the branches,
or flutters and flaps along the ground, uttering short snatches
of its song identically the same as when courting, but more
often squealing and imitating other species. Here, then, we
have a species which performs, not only during the period
of courtship, but also at other periods of excitement in its
lite, a remarkable series of both bodily and, if I may use the
term, vocal antics. We cannot disregard these facts. If the
song has really been developed owing to the females showing
a greater preference for the males with the more highly
developed vocal powers, is it not a little curious that, dur-
ing the courtship, the true song should be so far forgotten
sh
BRITISH WARBLERS
that the males, in their great excitement, indulge in a medley
of imitations of the songs and call-notes of alien species ?
The fact that birds with gorgeous plumage do not as a
rule possess any great powers of song, and, on the other hand,
that the best singers are as a rule dull-coloured, is regarded
as an indication of the reality of sexual selection, in so far as
it proves that the excitement of the female has been essen-
tially affected by only one of the characters of the male.
If this were a true interpretation of the facts, which are not
disputed, we should, by the same train of reasoning, expect
to find that the bodily and vocal antics have been mutually
exclusive, that the best singers do not, during their court-
ship, perform in a manner which could be interpreted as
a display of plumage. But we do not do so. The best
singers do perform in the most extravagant manner possible,
and this seems to me to lessen the importance that is
attached by the advocates of this theory to the mutual
exclusiveness of gorgeous colouring and beautiful song.
The view I hold with regard to these extravagant bodily
antics is that they are reflex actions directly resulting from any
excessive excitement, that they are not confined solely to
courtship, and do not in any way influence the female. This
view, as I am inclined to believe, gains considerable support
from the fact that we find a parallel case in the vocal organs,
namely, that whenever the excitement reaches a certain
degree of intensity, no matter how different the stimulus
may be, the reactions that follow are always similar.
If you watch a pair in the evening of the same day upon
which the mating has first taken place, you will notice a
remarkable change. The excitement has for the time passed
away ; never, in fact, to return in the same degree of intensity
until the following season. Instead of the restless pair that
were following one another about during the first hours of
daylight, you find a pair simply contented to remain in one
another’s company. ‘They are often close together, very close
sometimes, almost touching one another on the same branch,
18
BLACKCAP
and a note, which I call the mating note, a low gurgling
sound, is frequently used by both of them. The male is the
more demonstrative of the two, and when near the female he
will sometimes raise and quietly flap his wings. They are
never separate for very long, but sometimes each travels in
his or her own direction in search of food. If, however,
the male sings, a reply—the call-note of the species—will
generally be forthcoming from the female. On the other
hand, they will often travel within a few feet of one another,
searching for the Chironomide, or flying off and on to the
ivy berries, the flies not being sufficient to satisfy their
hunger. Periodical outbursts of excitement on the part of
the male are not uncommon; the cause is often difficult
to ascertain, but sometimes it is quite apparent; when, for
instance, there is excitement amongst the different indi-
viduals of his own or other closely allied species. When
two male Garden-Warblers have been excitedly following one
another, hopping about amongst the undergrowth, I have
seen a male Blackcap join them. The three then proceeded
to hop about, keeping close together and warbling quietly,
the effect being very pretty.
Such is the life between the time that pairing has taken
place and the commencement of the nest, a time which varies
in individual cases from a few hours to a day or perhaps
more.
When watching a pair during this period it would be a
simple matter to describe the affection or devotion that
apparently exists between them, but such a description
would be misleading. As previously indicated, I believe that
the guiding factor of the actions of the male, not so much
perhaps of the female, at this period is the sexual passion.
I am doubtful whether such an emotion as affection, using
the term in the sense applied to human personality, in-
fluences their actions in any degree, or, indeed, even exists.
There are many birds that pair for life, and there are some
that apparently pine for a lost mate, and these facts seem
19
BRITISH WARBLERS
to show something more than mere passion, but, on the
other hand, the negative evidence—that of the callous
behaviour of the males, except during the period of sexual
passion, of the desertion of the female by the male directly
the young are able to take care of themselves, of polygamy,
and of the replacement of a lost mate again and again in an
incredibly short space of time—is so strong that it precludes
the possibility of the existence, in at least a large majority
of the cases, of any feeling beyond a momentary passion.
The nest is always placed low down amongst the bushes
and undergrowth, holly, elder, or bramble being favourite
resorts, but many other shrubs are utilised, and it is some-
times even suspended, after the same manner as that of the
Reed-Warbler, from three nettles (Urtica dioica). In its
construction dead grasses of different sizes are principally
used, the coarser ones on the outside and the finer ones in
the interior, the lining being of horse-hair. The female does
the greater part of the building; the male sometimes helps
independently, often singing when doing so, and at other
times follows her closely as she searches for material, or
watches her vigorous efforts to sever the various grasses, the
fixing of which grasses takes considerable time. They shape
the nest with their breasts by lying in it and turning round,
and if the male happens to be at work when the female
arrives, he immediately gives place to her. An inquisitive
Chiff-chaff sometimes comes to watch the proceedings, but
is immediately pursued. Outbursts of excitement are of
common occurrence with the male, and he then pursues the
female, erecting his feathers and flapping his wings.
Directly the first ege is laid the male takes his turn in
sitting on the nest; and in cold seasons, especially in the
mornings, the eggs are never left long exposed, one or other
of the birds always showing anxiety to return. Now the time
that they leave their eggs exposed, either previous to or during
incubation, appears to vary with the prevailing conditions of
the atmosphere. ‘This procedure must be congenital, for how
20
BLACKCAP
could a bird recognise, even by the light of previous experi-
ence, that there was any connection between a definite
temperature of the eggs and the ultimate production of the
young; or how could a young bird without experience know
this? By some means this instinct is capable of being
regulated by external influences,* but by what means this
actually takes place we do not know; we do know, however,
that if it were not so, certain species that build nests exposed
to climatic variations would in a series of cold springs suffer
very heavily.
The eggs are usually five in number, one being laid every
twenty-four hours. When incubating the male and female
change places very frequently. The male leaves the nest
in reply to a call from the female, and she then takes his
place. While incubating the male often sings, in reply, I
believe, to other males.
Incubation lasts about fifteen days, but it is probable that
in the case of this and other species, the period may vary
with the prevailing climatic conditions.
Few birds display more excitement during the period of
incubation than the male Blackcaps; and when a number of
pairs inhabit the same wood it is fascinating to watch the
gatherings of the males, not only on account of the interest
that always attaches to any attempt to investigate the
ultimate cause of their actions, but also for the pleasure
derived from a close study of the attitudes that result. Dur-
ing this fortnight or three weeks they are very noisy and
sing continuously in the mornings, but not so much during
the day. Soon after pairing has taken place a deterioration
in their vocal powers commences and continues until their
* The notorious case quoted by Romanes in his ‘‘ Mental Evolution in
Animals,” of a bird which having placed its nest upon a forcing house, only
returned to sit upon the eggs at night when the temperature fell, is corro-
borative evidence, but I think wrongly ascribed by that great writer to
intelligent modification.
21
BRITISH WARBLERS
song ceases. Their song becomes hurried, new notes are
used, and the character of the song is completely altered.
They frequently imitate other species, and in addition give
utterance to unmusical sounds, which are most difficult to
describe, but are sometimes in the nature of a squeal, and at
other times more of a hissing, or, again, they may make use of
the deeper croaking note referred to previously.
They are not early risers; the Blackbird has probably
piped for an hour before there is much stir amongst the
community. But a general awakening amongst them is often
caused by a male singing or uttering his alarm-note, and in
the latter case he may be joined by a female, apparently to
investigate the reason, but he rapidly darts off and joins, or is
joined by, other males. When the males thus collect together
they spread their tails, raise the feathers on their backs and
heads, and scold one another vigorously, often moving from
place to place. As many as four will sometimes collect round
one female, and their antics are then most ludicrous, all of
them being inva state of excitement, spreading and flirting their
tails. One will, perhaps, warble and imitate other species,
another will twist and turn about on a branch, frequently
hanging head downwards, and while doing so twisting his
head upwards in a grotesque manner. The female at such
times seems heedless of their behaviour, and they, on their
part, appear to hold her in little regard, for if one male flies
away the rest follow and leave her alone. The real husband,
if he happens to be present, makes no objection to the pro-
ceedings. A Nightingale sometimes has the same effect as
the female in drawing the males together, and at other times
a Garden-Warbler uttering his harsh cry is quite sufficient,
and round the latter the males will collect, croaking and
screaming at one another. ‘These outbursts of excitement on
the part of the males vary considerably day by day. In some
mornings they are almost incessant for an hour or so, and in
others they only occasionally take place. They are very
spasmodic ; everything may be perfectly quiet, when suddenly
22
PUBLISHED BY R.H. PORTER
IMEZNIE lets TS LANCE!
ATTITUDE ASSUMED WHEN THE MALES ASSEMBLE
FROM ADJOINING TERRITORIES
AND ALSO AT OTHER PERTODS OF EXCITEMENT
SWAN ELECTRIC ENGRAVING C2
BLACKCAP
there is a harsh ery from a distant male, and this is sufficient
to arouse their passions. It seems as if very little inducement
was necessary to prolong this excitement when once aroused.
The males collect from adjoining territories, often some dis-
tance from where their mates are sitting, and though they seem
to assemble more or less in the same place, yet it is difficult to
make certain of this, since they move about very considerably.
I have, however, noticed that such assemblies occur frequently
in the territory of a certain male, while only rarely in that
of others adjoining. A male, while incubating, will suddenly
leave his nest and dart off to join one of these assemblies, or
intrude upon a later pair during their courtship. In the
latter case, all three birds become very excited, the males
spread their tails, extend their wings, and flap through the
air, and the female raises her feathers and screams. The
male that is courting undoubtedly resents the presence of the
other, for he will attack him, and while doing so will fluff out
the feathers on his breast and back, erect his head feathers,
and spread out his tail. Whether these assemblies are
prompted by a love of play, jealousy, anger, excitement only,
or some cause of which we are not at present cognisant,
remains a subject for speculation. The direct stimulus is
often quite apparent, and this, in most cases, is the presence
of a female. It is during the first few hours of the morning,
when the females of most species leave their nests, that
coition takes place, and I am inclined to think that this is
often the cause of the excitement; but it is clear that it is
not always so, as, for instance, when the males collect round
a member of some other species; though even here sexual
passion may be indirectly the cause. The excitement
diminishes in intensity week by week, finally disappearing
when the young are reared and the males leave their breeding
territories.
Sometimes when a pair are quietly feeding amongst the
oaks, a second male joins them, an intrusion to which the
other male objects, spreading out his tail; on the arrival of
23
BRITISH WARBLERS
a second female the two males have a scolding contest, facing
one another with tails outspread and feathers raised. I do
not recollect having seen the two males actually fighting, such
contests apparently ending in scolding only.
When excited the males will even sing as they fly. A
female may join a pair that are quietly feeding, and when
this occurs the male protests in a half-hearted manner,
uttering his call-note quickly and turning about on the
branches.
Most of the young are hatched during the first or second
week in June, and the male shares, equally with the female,
the duties of tending them. The male is now most excitable,
and if an individual of another species approaches the nest
too closely, immediately darts off in pursuit. When brooding
he will not leave until almost touched, then flutters off, runs
about the ground, squeals, and imitates the notes of other
species.
Both of the parents are energetic, but in the presence of
danger exhibit somewhat different characteristics. The male
is always the bolder, and consequently it is a more difficult
matter to persuade the female to overcome her alarm and
approach her offspring when one is near the nest. This lack
of courage on her part is very marked at all stages of their
erowth, whether they are just hatched or on the point of
leavine the nest, or even after they have flown and all
capable to some extent of escaping any danger. When,
therefore, you first arrive at the nest you will find that the
male, after making a few half-hearted efforts to reach it from
different sides, will, while still protesting—which sometimes
takes the form of singing even with his bill full of larve—
make a dash at the nest, and while watching you carefully will
dispose of the food, hurriedly placing it in the nearest open
gape. With each successful effort his courage increases, and
he thus becomes calmer, and before long feeds his offspring
naturally. The case, however, is very different with the
female. She arrives with her bill full of larvee, disappears
24
BLACKCAP
into the bushes, then approaches from the opposite direction,
disappears again, and finally swallows the food she is carrying.
After a short time she again returns, approaches the nest
more closely, especially if the male is in front and more or
less leading her, but cannot finally make up her mind. This
hesitation lasts for some time, and while it lasts she often
reaches the nest, settles on the side of it, but even then her
courage fails her and again she disappears. In time she
becomes callous and feeds naturally, but is always more care-
ful than the male to conceal her approach. That her excite-
ment is considerable is shown by the way she sometimes
quivers her wings in the same manner as just previous to
coition. The length of time necessary for the parents to
overcome their alarm at your presence depends very much
on their first impression. If, that is to say, they suddenly
return and find you in full view, their courage is more taxed
than if you are partially concealed and very quiet.
Both parents are careful after bringing a supply of food
to wait for the feces to be ejected, and when this is done
they carry them away and drop them some distance from the
nest, or swallow them. I have seen a male still carrying the
feeces away when the young had left the nest and were sitting
amongst the bushes.
The male frequently sings while his bill is full of larvee.
The young grow very rapidly. About the fifth day they
begin to use, although very quietly, the call-note of the
species. ‘They now also preen their feathers and peck at the
insects on their bodies after the manner of the adults. About
the sixth day they stretch themselves and flap their wines
continually. Under ordinary conditions the young remain
in the nest until about the ninth day, but as early as the
seventh day I have removed a young one for experimental
purposes some distance from the nest, and upon my doing
so the parents made a considerable commotion and the
remaining young immediately left. This commotion attracted,
among birds of other species, another male Blackcap; he
25
BRITISH WARBLERS
hopped about, spreading his tail, waving his wings, singing
and warbling, but was vigorously pursued by both parents.
In order to see whether the young are capable of recognis-
ing the note of their own parents, I have placed them on the
ground or held them in my hand some distance from the nest,
and in the territory of another pair. But hitherto I have
been unable to obtain any satisfactory results; for it is
necessary that one or other of the pair should use the note
which exercises such influence on the young. The only
reliable method would be to transfer a young one into the
territory of a pair who had offspring of much the same size.
The song of the male has little influence.
When the young have just left the nest the anxiety of
the parents is even greater than before. They are now more
or less scattered, and this is especially the case if their depar-
ture, on account of any alarm, has been a hurried one. If
you happen.to be near them the excitement of the parents is
intense ; but if by holding one in your hand, or even touching
it, which is sometimes sufficient, you cause it to utter its
alarm-note, this excitement apparently reaches its limit.
There is little doubt that it is the limit, since the actions,
especially in the case of the male, take the same form as at
every other time of extreme excitement. Both parents utter
unusually plaintive squeals, which gradually die away, and
they flutter about on the ground; the male, hanging on a
branch near you, twists and turns about, sometimes head
downwards, flirting his tail, erecting his head feathers, and
uttering notes which are impossible to describe. When the
young are thus scattered it is interesting to notice the effect
a certain note of the parents has upon them; their whole aim
is to go in the direction of the sound, the attraction seeming
almost irresistible. For the purpose of seeing the effect of
this note, I have taken a young one when unable to fly, but
only to scramble about among the branches, and having placed
it upon the ground some distance away, have awaited the
results. Its efforts to approach the sound were remarkable
26
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BLACKCAP
but its progress very slow; I therefore, after a short time,
lifted it on to the branches, when one of the parents came to
it, and by calling and perching close beside it, led it away
into the bushes. The alarm-note of the young which has
such an exciting influence upon the parents must in some
way differ from the ordinary call-note, for this latter note is
uttered frequently when they have been some time without
food and is quietly replied to by the parents, but what the
difference is I have been unable to detect. There is no doubt
that it is this note and not the proximity of a human being
to their offspring, that exercises such an influence upon the
parents. If you place a young one upon your hand and
remain perfectly motionless, you will find that the little
creature will be devoid of any fear. Its call-note will
gradually cease, its eyes will alternately close and open, its
feathers all over its body will be relaxed, and drawing its
head down between its shoulders, it will finally fall asleep.
The greater part of the life of the young at this age is spent
in sleep. The alarm-note of the parents has a remarkable
effect upon them. If you know where they are in hiding and
approach them suddenly, you will find that the parents will
utter this note; an impulse immediately seizes the young,
compelling them to fly, but they know not whither nor why,
so often, to the despair of the parents, they fly straight at you.
The young continue with the female for some time after
they are really capable of taking care of themselves, though the
male does not often accompany them. He still sings, but the
song is poor; his outbursts of excitement are less frequent and
less intense. Excitement amongst individuals of other species
will attract him, and he will frequently be an interested spectator
if a Garden-Warbler, disturbed while feeding its young, com-
mences to croak. Sometimes he pursues one of another
species, such as a Chiff-chaff, Nightingale, or Hedge-Sparrow,
and either plays or fights with him. ‘Towards the end of July
the song decreases, and in August practically ceases. During
the latter month both sexes are quiet and subdued.
27
BRITISH WARBLERS
The moulting period extends from the middle of August
until the end of September, but they do not all moult at the
same time; some have assumed their winter plumage by the
beginning of September, while others do not do so until the
latter part of that month.
During the autumn they can be easily watched in the
elder-bushes, where, attracted by the berries, they collect,
and spend the first few hours of the morning, and probably
the greater part of the day. When possible it is best to
conceal oneself, while yet dark, in the bushes that are known
to be frequented: the birds then collect naturally, and are
often completely unaware of one’s presence. There is at this
time of year a very marked change in their temperament ;
a reaction has set in; the tendency towards extreme excita-
bility, which was the leading characteristic of both sexes, but
of the males especially, during the spring and early summer,
has disappeared, and we now find sober-minded individuals,
prone to a certain amount of playfulness, but apparently
more contented when preening their feathers, resting, or
feeding. Their games at this period, if they are games, are
not very interesting to watch and seem to lack vigour; they
more often take the form of a scolding match. When three
take part there is considerable commotion, but often two fly
at, and simply pass by each other without actually fighting.
The males, while resting, sing very quietly a song which is
scarcely audible twenty yards away, but they do occasionally
break out into louder strains, which are very poor compared
with those in spring. The quiet song is much the prettier.
During the performance the throat is considerably distended,
but the effort to produce the sound is apparently not very
creat. If it were not for the mist and the smell of decaying
vegetation it would be easy, when listening to this song, to
imagine oneself back again in spring. I have sometimes seen
two males, comparatively near, answering one another; while
the one was singing the other would turn his head sideways,
listening intently, and when the first one had finished, would
immediately commence to repeat the strain. But this quiet
28
BLACKCAP
song, such as it is, is more of a warble than a song, through
which the real notes can occasionally be traced.
While resting they sit in their characteristic attitude,
like a ball of feathers, tails drooping, backs very much
rounded, and their head feathers raised. After resting thus
for a while they fly to the berries, and, swallowing some,
compose themselves for a further repose. I have noticed
that about six of these berries are generally sufficient to
appease their appetites for a time, but their visits to the
trees are frequent, and their digestive powers rapid. As long
as an observer remains perfectly still in his retreat, they, like
all other wild creatures, take little notice of him; they will
only come and look from the opposite side of a branch, dis-
appear, and return again, as if unable to understand his
presence; any movement, however, no matter how slight, is
sufficient to arouse their suspicions, and cause them to utter
their alarm-note, when all within hearing will be on the alert.
I have already referred to the song and powers of imitation
of both adult and immature birds, but since their vocal powers
are so highly developed, the subject becomes a more than
usually interesting one. I shall therefore relate the various
phenomena I have noticed in connection with it somewhat
minutely. In order to do this, I propose to divide the subject
into four parts, and deal with each part separately :—
(1) The development in the male from year to year.
(2) The deterioration in both mature and immature
individuals immediately coition has taken place.
(3) Power of imitation.
(4) Evidence of emulation.
(1) It will be found that in the spring, when the males
first arrive, there is a great variation in the quality of the
song of the different individuals, that in some cases there is
a marked inferiority, which is difficult to describe but easy to
detect, while in others the song is so strikingly beautiful as
to at once arrest attention. The difference between these two
extremes lies principally in the purer notes, which might well
29
BRITISH WARBLERS
be compared to a flute, the inferior song lacking the fulness
or richness of tone, and not being as powerful; and there is
also this difference, that that part of the song which contains
these notes is not of the same length nor so frequently pro-
duced. The inferior song I have sometimes traced to males
with dull, undeveloped plumage, but the purer song, which,
though not frequent, is not of uncommon occurrence, is
invariably the production of males with highly developed
colouring and plumage. Between these two extremes the
gradations are numerous. It is difficult to prove that such
gradations are due to different stages of growth, owing to the
impossibility of keeping the same birds under observation from
year to year. Nor is it lkely that, under confinement, the
conditions could be made sufficiently natural for the results
.to be reliable. But the evidence rather leads to the conclu-
sion that a gradual strengthening and perfecting of the vocal
organs does take place, though whether as a result of practice
alone, or from a combination of causes, it is impossible to say ;
and this conclusion gains considerable support from the fact
that in the case of other species with highly developed vocal
powers, such as the Blackbird (T’wrdus merula), a development
can undoubtedly be traced from year to year.
(2) The deterioration of the song is an interesting pheno-
menon. When the males arrive in spring their vocal powers
are at their best; this condition continues until mated, when
a gradual deterioration takes place. About the middle of May
it ig not unusual to hear them commence their song by a
single note repeated three times in succession. The song
itself now lacks vigour, is shorter and more confused, the
beautiful part of 1t is produced less frequently, and the notes
themselves lose much of their original sweetness. I once
heard a male that sang beautifully earlier in the spring,
repeat continually and almost perfectly the first line of the
song “Pop goes the Weasel.” Proof that sexual intercourse
is the direct cause is lacking. But bearing in mind these
30
BLACKCAP
facts, and the analogy of the deterioration of the colour and
plumage as a result of the same cause, and that the develop-
ment of the vocal powers in the spring corresponds with that
of the sexual organs, showing how intimately associated the
one is with the other; bearing all this in mind, we can with
some confidence say that the deterioration, such as we find,
is the very result that we should under the conditions
anticipate.
(3) Imitation forms a large part of the vocal efforts of the
males, and in this respect I have been able to detect little
difference between immature and adult birds. In both cases
the imitations are very perfect and unmistakable. Many of
them are the immediate copies of sounds produced by mem-
bers of other species; for instance, when a Blackbird utters
its alarm-note, a male will sometimes at once repeat it note
for note, or when some other species not far distant, such as
a Redstart (Ruticiula phenicurus), happens to sing, he will
pause in his song and then reproduce a repetition of the
sound. ‘This demonstrates how acute their sense of hearing
is. But the greater part of this imitation is produced from
memory, aS is amply shown by the song of the males
early in the spring before the species imitated have arrived.
Those most frequently copied are the Nightingale and Garden-
Warbler, but I have heard in addition to those already
mentioned, imitations of the Whitethroat, Sedee-Warbler,
Starling (Stwrnus vulgaris), Thrush (Lurdus musicus), Linnet
(Acantius cannabina), Great Titmouse (Parus major), Long-
tailed Titmouse (Acredula caudata), Missel-Thrush (Turdus
viscworus), and 'T'ree-Creeper (Certhia familiaris).
The sequence of imitative strains does not appear to be
always similar in the same individual; the various imitations
being utilised anyhow, the same one is often repeated, and
some are made use of much more frequently than others.
When, upon further investigation, we attempt to find a solu-
tion of the method by which these imitations have reached the
31
BRITISH WARBLERS
degree of perfection in which we now perceive them, we shall
find that the task is neither so simple nor so easy as it may at
first appear to be. In a problem, too, of this description, it
is well to remember that simple principles of explanation are
to be preferred to complex, and in this instance a simple one
is at hand, namely, that the imitations have been acquired
by each individual during its own lifetime. How far is this
explanation satisfactory? It is unquestionably true of a
number of cases. The Blackcap replies to the “jug” in the
Nightingale’s song, repeats the song of the Redstart, or
answers the “chuckle” of a Blackbird. In fact, numerous
instances could be given of a member of one species producing
an immediate representation of the song of one of another;
but this is really unnecessary, since it is well known that birds
kept in confinement have an innate proclivity for copying the
sounds they hear. But this does not exhaust all the possible
methods, neither do I think it explains all the phenomena
with which we are brought face to face upon closer examina-
tion. There are some grounds for believing that part of the
imitations may be congenital, the acquired imitation of the
parent being transmitted to the offspring. Needless to say,
the evidence I have hitherto been enabled to obtain bearing
upon this point is far from being complete; a human lifetime
is too short for the accumulation of the necessary facts; con-
certed observation on the part of a number of naturalists can
only justify a conclusion, but I place it upon record, hoping
that it may be the means of inducing others to investigate
what I think may prove a source of knowledge so far as this
much-debated controversy is concerned.
I have already mentioned that the colouring of the imma-
ture males on their arrival in this country in the spring is not
so intense as that of the older birds, and that some of them
still carry the brown-tipped feathers on their head; conse-
quently, it is by no means a difficult matter to distinguish
them. They are just as vigorous singers, although their song
is not so perfect, and their power of imitation is considerable,
32
BLAOKCAP
parts of the song of the Nightingale and the Garden-Wavbler,
amongst other species, being introduced. Now these males
would not have left the nest until the middle of the previous
June, and at this date both the Nightingales and Garden-
Warblers are silent; one may, perhaps, hear occasionally a
momentary outburst of song from a Nightingale, or a short and
quiet warble from a Garden-Warbler, but even this soon ceases,
and neither of these species then sing again before leaving this
country. ‘These males next return at the beginning of the
following April, while the Garden-Warblers do not arrive until
some weeks after this date, and the Nightingales about the
same time, but they are generally rather later. It is, there-
fore, clear that they could not have acquired these imitations
during the few weeks that they have been in contact with
these other species in this country. But there remains the
period between September and the following April, the time
in which they are resident in their winter home. What
happens during these months? My impression has always
been that such species as the Nightingale and Garden-Warbler
do not sing. If I am wrong in thus thinking, it is clear that
they would have had ample opportunity of acquiring them
during this period; on the other hand, if I am right, and
these species, so far as their song is concerned, are silent,
then we can only regard the imitations as congenital.
There are other points in connection with the imitative
faculty which are difficult to explain except on the hypothesis
of transmission. Why, for instance, in almost every series of
imitations, should the song of the Nightingale and Garden-
Warbler be introduced? It is true that the males have
considerable opportunities of hearing them, but it is also true
that there are other species inhabiting the same situations
which are more frequent and more persistent singers. Or, how
is it that the series of imitative strains is to so large an extent
composed of the songs and call-notes of our indigenous
species? As far as the song of our own migrants, in their
winter home, is concerned, silence may reign, but the males
33
BRITISH WARBLERS
must have innumerable opportunities of hearing the cries,
call-notes, and songs of species foreign to this country; yet
they fail to incorporate them, to any appreciable extent, with
their song.
The truth is, that much more evidence is required ; it must
not be forgotten that my facts are collected from, compara-
tively speaking, a very small area. It is possible that the
sequence of imitative strains in the song of the male in other
parts of the British Islands does not contain the songs of the
species mentioned in so large a proportion, but I can scarcely
believe that it can be so; it is more probable that the law of
uniformity accompanies the imitative faculty, as it does every
other vital manifestation of the animal world, and that for
reasons at present unknown to us, certain strains may have
been and may be incorporated more readily than others.
Returning once again to the simple explanation with
which we set out, namely, individual acquirement, I find it
difficult to understand from this point of view why there
should be such similarity in the imitations; for with the
imitative faculty so strongly implanted, and with different
males living in contact, as they undoubtedly do, with different
species, we should here look for and surely expect to find some
traces of divergent individualism.
There is yet another method by which they may have
arisen, although, as we shall see, not a very probable one.
Many naturalists believe that the type of the song of different
species 1s a matter of tradition, that is to say, that the parents
hand it down to their offspring. This hypothesis requires that
the young birds should have had predominant opportunities
of hearing their parents’ song; but the fact seems to have
been lost sight of that there are species, and those, too, in
which the vocal powers are developed in the highest degree,
that are silent during the period in which they are engaged
in tending their young, some of them even remaining so until
the following spring. The power of imitation must be founded
upon a congenital basis, and if the song had been thus handed
n4
BLACKCAP
down, it is difficult to see why the young, when they have so
many more opportunities of hearing other species in preference
to their own, should sing true to type at all. If it is, there-
fore, true that in a large number of instances the song could
not have been passed on from parent to offspring, it is @ for-
tore true of the imitations which are so essentially a part of
the sone.
(4) It may seem out of place to allude to emulation under
the heading of song, forming, as it does, a small part of a
much larger question; but since it has been remarked upon
in connection with this species, a brief allusion to it is
necessary.
It is no uncommon sight to see the male Blackcaps and
Garden-Warblers engaged apparently in a singing contest.
They settle within a few yards of one another, and exert
themselves to the utmost in simultaneously producing sounds,
which are by no means always tuneful. The same scenes
occur between Nightingales and Blackcaps, and even between
the three species, Blackcaps, Nightingales, and Garden-
Warblers. At such times a Nightingale, while singing
hurriedly, will pursue a Blackcap. This action may be inter-
preted as the result of a jealous rivalry, but when we see
how prone the Blackcap is to excitement, resulting in the
curious assemblies previously referred to, and the similarity
of his song, no matter how different the cause of the excite-
ment may be, we must not be too hasty in assuming that an
intelligent appreciation of his powers is in any way connected
with it.
Their food is a mixture of various fruits and insects. On
their arrival in the spring they subsist principally upon the
berries of the common climbing ivy (Hedera helix), and their
bills and throats are often stained with the black juice. They
swallow six or more at a time, large and small, and it is sur-
prising how very large a berry they are capable of swallowing
30
BRITISH WARBLERS
whole. Insect-life so early in the season is not very plenti-
ful, but they often search the branches for the Chirono-
mide. As the season advances they feed more upon insects,
but I have seen them in May swallowing the young shoots
of the Norway Spruce, and in the latter part of that month
they search the oaks and other trees for the larve of Tortrix
viridana and Chimatobia bruwmata, and on these larve the
young are to a large extent fed. In August they frequent
gardens in search of raspberries, and as the autumn advances
their food consists largely of the berries of the elder (Sambucus
nigra) and bramble (Rubus Jruticosus).
36
10
PALLAS'S. WILLOW-WARB LER.
Phylloscopus proregulus, Dresser, Birds of Hurope, ae ix (Supplement),
pp. 78-77, pl. 650, fig. 2 (coloured figure of adult male), 1895 ;
Lilford, Coloured Figures, yol. iii, p. 72, pl. 36 (coloured figure of
adult male), 1897 ; Saunders, Manual of Britishe Bir ds, 2nd Ed., pp.
63-64 (woodout), 1897. :
Ger man, Goldhihnchen- Lanbsiinger.
-DESCRIPTION OF. THE PLUMAGE.
Adult Male in:.Spring. ereen
washed with yellowish green. The rump | is ee yellow,
the upper tail-coverts-the same colour as the back; and the
upper surface of the tail greyish brown. The outer edge of the
outermost tail-feather is light brownish grey, and ‘the outer
edge of the remaining: tail- feathers the same colour as the
back, though slightly more yellow. The crown has a some-
what indistinct yellowish white stripe im ‘the centre extending
to the nape, and a conspicuous chrome yellow superciliary
stripe commences at the forehead and extends behind the eye.
The lores are dark greyish green, and the cheeks and sides of
the neck grey washed with whitish yellow. ‘The wing is ash
brown, the least and medium: coverts greenish grey, the latter
being tipped with white? the primary coverts are ash brown
edged with greenish yellow, and the secondary coverts ash grey
edged with greenish erey. and- tipped owith yellowish white ;
the wing has thus two distinct. shite stvipes*across it. The
flight-feathers are ashy brown ed, eh Brevis ereen, the
BRITISH WARBLERS
innermost secondaries being tipped with white. The pos-
terior edge of the primaries is brownish white. The under
parts generally are whitish, but the throat is of a more
whitish grey colour tinged with yellow, which colour continues
down the breast, where it forms indistinct longitudinal stripes.
The abdomen is white, the flanks tinged with greenish yellow,
and the under tail-coverts whitish grey washed with light
yellowish green. The under side of the tail and wing is greyish
lavender, the flight-feathers being edged with white. Axillaries
are sulphur yellow and the edge of the wing chrome yellow.
The bill is horn black, the lower mandible being buff colour
at the base, and the iris dark brown. Feet are flesh brown
with yellowish green soles. .
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.
There are only two records of the occurrence of this
Warbler in Europe, one being obtained on the coast of
Norfolk, and the other on the Island of Heligoland.
In Eastern Siberia it is by no means rare, occurring
in the Province of Yeniseisk, on the River Lena, near Lake
Baikal, in the vicinity of Irkutsk, and on the left bank of the
River Selenga. It is also found to the south of the River
Ussuri, on the borders of Lake Khanka, and in the neigh-
bourhood of Baranoysk. Large numbers pass through Pekin
on migration. Throughout the Himalaya Mountains it
appears to be not uncommon, and in winter visits the hills
in Manipur and Tenasserim.
BEBLIB,
GREVE,
ITHO.
AND
aI
MATI
VE
id
a
PUELISCHER
RADDE'S “apainorsiane |
Luseiniola schwarzi, Saunders, Manual of British Binds; and Ed RD
[los Tees ae RIGS one
"DESCRIPTION OF THE PLUMAGE.
_ Raut Male in - Autumn and Winter. —The upper parts
a. Se more rusty. an and the outer es of the
primaries. and. tail- feathers more yellowish. There is a dis-
- tinct buffish:- yellow | ‘superciliary stripe ending somewhat
» abruptly, the lores ‘are blackish, and the cheeks brownish grey
vit light 1 narrow stripe in the middle of each feather. The
throat i is whitish, the crop more of a buff colour—some speci-
: “Inens- showing. a. slight vinous tint—and this colour extends
~~ down the flanks. The under tail-coverts are’ avhitish buff, and
the abdomen pure white. In some specimens the under parts
have a more olive yellowish appearance. The under part of
the ‘tail is lavender brown, and the, ‘shafts of the feathers
whitish. The feet are buffish flesh: nolo, iris brown, and the
bill horn. ooo, the lower, mai le being buffish yellow at
the. base. : es ?
Tn oie spring. the won the under surface seems
ni me colour, and the upper parts are
olive. ie
BRITISH WARBLERS
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.
One specimen has been obtained on the coast of Lincoln-
shire, this being the only European record.
The home of the species is principally Eastern Siberia,
the western limit being the district round Lake Baikal,
and the eastern the country of the River Amur, including
the Island of Saghalien, which it visits in considerable
numbers. In winter it visits Southern China, Pegu, and
the northern and central parts of Tenasserim.
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